Women at Work Throughout European History

Woman's economic contribution to her family and community throughout Europe's history has been substantial. While her social status was usually unequal to that of her husband's, her innate abilities were not. In the Middle Ages the "house wife" was often as much a manager as her husband, the peasant as much a field laborer as her father or husband, and the shopkeeper's wife as knowledgeable as her husband in commerce. During the Renaissance women were often as learned as their male counterparts and a few even practiced medicine. During the 1600s there was a short period of very educated women. While the 1700 and 1800s saw most middle-class and upper-class married women in their homes, many single women, especially those of the lower classes, continued to fill positions as servants and factory workers. This article will take a look at some of the jobs women did throughout the Middle Ages, Renaissance and the Pre-Industrial Period. I will deal with the impact the Industrial period had on female employment at a later time.

Middle Ages and Renaissance and Pre-Industrial: While attitudes toward women may have fluctuated during these ages, many of the jobs women held remained the same. Of course there was a move towards more education for women in the Renaissance and the 16th and 17th centuries, but there was also a strong move by the church and society towards the superiority of man and the husband.

PEASANTS: The peasant family was an economic unit. In order to survive everyone worked to their ability. Women often worked their master's land alongside their men. The pay was half of the men. If a peasant was not working in the field she often worked as a laundress, or servant in a home or business establishment. She was responsible for helping maintain any small plot of land owned by her family. There was very little rest for the peasant, much less the peasant woman. Every daylight hour was dedicated to the survival of her family and herself.

MERCHANTS, ARTISANS, GUILD MEMBERS: The innkeeper's wife undoubtedly worked side by side with her husband and children to maintain the family business. A merchant's wife often had her own business or helped manage her husband's trade. Some guilds and trades were actually female monopolies, like ale-making and spinning and some of the food and textile trades. Medieval mystic, Margery Kempe ran a brewery and mill while married to a rich merchant. Well-known medieval author Christine de Pizan wrote a treatise on a female's economic duties as the wife of an artisan as part of her treatise "The Treasure of the City of Ladies: or the Book of the Three Virtues.

MIDWIVES, WET-NURSES, DOCTORS - Midwives were obviously abundant. Men were not seldom invited into the birthing room. Therefore midwifery was essential. While there were many ignorant midwives and thus many young mother's deaths, there were undoubtedly many skilled midwives as well. Wet-nurses was also a job that a village women could do to earn extra money. Nursing your own children was not common among the upper-classes, most nobles hired a wet-nurse and later a nanny or governess for their children. Licensed women doctors during these two ages was rare. Still there were exceptions. Sometime between the 11th and 13th centuries a woman named Trotula led a group of Italian female medical students. Her existence and importance is verified by her writings on the diseases of women. Peretta Perone was a well-known Parisian surgeon during the 15th century. Still other women whose skill as doctors and surgeons were well-known and often prosecuted for practicing without a license. In 1322 Jacoba Felicie was prosecuted by Paris's University faculty for practicing medicine without a degree or a license. She probably continued her practice as other similar women did despite the persecution from her "colleagues."

GENTRY - A noble or upper-class woman was by no means idle. They were managers of households and estates that were run like businesses. When her husband was absent, which he often was, she was responsible for overseeing a vast number of responsibilities in addition to motherhood. In addition, many women were widowed and subsequently responsible for their estates. She supervised everything from the sewing, candle-making, cooking, entertaining, bookkeeping, tenants and servants. Christine de Pizan counseled women of this status that they should be well versed in managing the affairs of the household when their husbands are absent.

"Thoroughly knowledgeable about the laws related to fiefs, sub-fiefs, quit rents, champarts, taxes for various causes and all those sorts of things that are within the jurisdiction of the lordship, according to the customs of the region, so that no one can deceive her about them. . . In addition, she will do well to be a very good manager of her estate and to know all about the work of the land and at what time and in which season one ought to perform what operations."

On larger estates and castles the responsibilities were even more enormous. A medieval castle in itself was a small community including the family, military personnel, ministerial, and domestic staff.. In 1265 the English king's sister, Eleanor de Monfort, countess of Leicester had a household staff of 60 servants. That did not include her husband's knights who she often had to feed and house. A kitchen staff could make 100 loaves of bread a day. While there were steward and household servants to oversee the kitchen, the stables, the maids, the matron of the house still had to supervise and manage all of these people.

Nuns and Writers -- Nunneries were the only alternative to marriage for the middle and upper-class women. Life in a nunnery was seen by some women as freedom from the drudgery of marriage, and other parents saw the endowment of their child to the church as an eternal reward and sometimes only alternative for a daughter with a small dowry. Nunneries and abbeys were self-supporting with the women performing various duties. They could also become renown for their religious writing and poetry. German nun, Hrostvitha of Gandersheim, was Germany's first poet and female writer. Female writers outside of the church were very rare. During the middle ages the only well-known writer was Christine de Pizan, and she became famous only after the death of all her male relatives required her to write in order to support her family.

Soldiers -- Many women of nobility are know for their military skills either in the field or in holding their castles during a siege. Lombardian princess, Sichelgaita often rode into battle with her husband who was a Norman mercenary soldier. Of course there is the familiar Joan of Arc who commanded her own army and Eleanor of Aquitane defended her own castle with a force while under siege by her grandson.

It is obvious that women were more than homemakers, they were mothers, managers, soldiers, religious forces, and merchants. Regardless of the treatment she received from her husband in terms of deference or equal footing a woman was an essential economic asset to her family.

Sources: Stone, Lawrence, The Family Sex and Marriage in England 1500-1800 abridged edition. Harper and Row, N.Y., 1979.

Pizan, de Christine, The Treasure of the City of the Ladies: or The Book of the Three Virtues, Trans: Sarah Lawson. N.Y.: Penguin , 1985, pp.130-133..

Gies and Gies, Frances and Joseph, Life in a Medieval Castle. Harper and Row, N.Y. 1974.

Tuchman, Barbara W, A Distant Mirror, The Calamitous 14th Century. Ballantine Books, N.Y. 1978.