Maintaining Teacher Motivation
One remains motivated in a profession when stress is kept at a minimum. The article, "A Study of the Relationships Among Teacher Efficacy, Locus of Control, and Stress," authorized by Forrest W. Parkay, Stephen Olenik, and Norman Proller, reported stress experienced by teachers in a study concerning teacher's stress in connection with locus of control, feelings of efficacy, and perceptions of stress. The authors defined locus of control as the belief that one's behavior determines the events of one's life. There were two different types of locus of control: internal and external, as reported in the article. The internal locus of control is a state of belief in which one feels in control of the situation. Conversely, the external locus of control is a state where one feels the events are beyond one's control. In this study, the researchers reported the teachers with an external locus of control construct responded to stress with "more anxiety, neurotic symptoms, and self-punitiveness" than those teachers with an internal locus of control construct. (13) The teachers with the later construct were found to experience less stress and received higher scores on standard teaching evaluations. The students of these teachers were reported to feel less school related stress and also scored higher on their own assessments. Teacher efficacy, as defined by the authors, means teachers believe their actions and beliefs directly affect students. The researchers, of this article, found a correlation between teacher efficacy and student performance; when teachers felt they could produce the desired outcome by students, students produced positive achievements. (14) The researchers, of this study, also found teachers of low stress schools developed "fewer physical symptoms of job-related stress and fewer psychological/emotional stress symptoms of stress." (20) Teachers in high-stress schools felt powerless to control events and responded to job-related stress dysfunc-tionally, employing "ineffective stress management skills." (20) After the findings of this study were reported, the researchers suggested more staff development activities which aggravate control beliefs and abate teacher perceived stress be initiated prior to the introduction of new curricular materials. (20) Also, the researchers suggested to prevent teacher burnout, stress management training and coping skills be taught to teachers. One such training suggested was the R.E.A.D. program, the acronym for deep relaxation, regular exercise, attitude and awareness, and diet. (21)
Another study concerning teacher efficacy, but in conjunction with teachers' commitment to teaching, was reported by Theodore Coladarci in his article, "Teacher's Sense of Efficacy and Commitment to Teaching." In his article, Colardarci defined efficacy as referring to "one' s beliefs rather than to observable behavior." (323) He cited one theory of self-efficacy. This theory being, efficacy is "that human behavior is influenced by the individual's beliefs regarding two classes of expectations." (324) One of these classes of expectation was termed the outcome expectation and was defined by Coladarci as "a person' s estimate that a given behavior will lead to certain outcomes." (324) The second class of expectations was the efficacy outcome expectation, "the conviction that one can successfully execute the behavior required to produce the outcome." (324) Teacher outcome expectation, as stated by Colardarci, is the belief of teachers "that skillful instruction can offset the effects of an impoverished home life." (324) The efficacy outcome expectation expectation was defined, in the article, as a "teacher's confidence that he/she personally is capable of such instruction." (324) It was reported, practicing teachers with extra graduate courses in the field of education had higher efficacy outcome expectations. The students of lower efficacy teacher were lower achievers than were the students of teachers with higher efficacy who also maintained colleague interactions concerning instructional matters. Outcome expectation and efficacy expectations were found to be higher among elementary teachers than teachers of secondary schools. The highest overall efficacy within one school was found when the school had "high levels of parental involvement." (324)
Within the same article, Caladarci defined commitment to teaching as the "teacher's psychological attachment to the teaching profession." (326) When teachers are not committed to the teaching profession, most of these teachers left the teaching field within the first five years of teaching. Teachers attrition was highest in the math and the science subject areas. The author felt possible justification for the attrition of these teachers was they were academically abler and were placed in supervisory roles over other teachers. The most frequently reported reason for leaving the profession was low salary and working conditions. Currently employed teachers were surveyed as to whether they would choose the profession again. Their favorable response rose from ten percent to thirty percent during the fifteen years between 1966 and 1981, but dropped to thirty percent in 1986. (326) Reasons given by the teachers not wanting to return to the profession were: "excessive non-teaching responsibilities, large classes, lack of job autonomy and discretion, sense of isolation from colleagues and supervisors, insufficient administrative support, and powerlessness regarding important decision-making processes." (327) Sixty-five percent of the Maine teachers surveyed in the study, reportedly would "certainly" or "probably" choose their profession again. This average was twice as high as the national percentage of thirty percent. The teachers who reportedly were "unlikely" to return to the profession were found in Maine to be lower than the national average. Women were found to be more committed to the profession than men, and teachers with a high efficacy construct were found to be more committed than teachers with a low efficacy construct. Reported in the study was the fact that teachers with a "high commitment to the teaching profession was experienced by "women, teachers employed in schools with fewer students per teacher, and teachers who worked under a principal regarded positively in the areas of instructional leadership, school advocacy, decision making, and relations with students and staff." (332) Caladarci concluded the article with his findings that efficacy outcome and efficacy expectations were the two strongest predictors of commitment to the teaching profession with efficacy expectation the greater contribution and efficacy outcome with teachers who had perceived stress. He believed schools should promote programs to enhance teacher efficacy outcome and efficacy expectation to strengthen teachers' commitment to the profession. (324)
Michael Bertock, Elwin Nielsen, Jeffrey Curley, and Walter Bor, in their article, "Reducing Teacher Stress," reported the results of their study concerning teacher stress. The authors cited the fact that everyone who has studied teacher stress, regard teacher stress as serious. The purpose of the study was "to develop and evaluate a prototype treatment focused on the apparent casual factors of stress, utilizing most promising treatment strategies that have emerged from previous research." (118) The authors cited four reasons which determine teacher stress, all interrelated and addictive: "stress events taking place in the environment, and nature and intensity of resulting emotional responses, and personality characteristics of the individual." (118) Bertock, et. al., stated the teachers' environmental stress concerns of high accountability as being "student discipline and attitude problems, teacher competence, and teacher administrator relations." (118) Teacher emotional stress components were listed as "anger, self-doubt, lack of confidence, exhaustion, hypertension absenteeism, and early retirement" while teacher personality stress components were composed of "negative self-perception, negative life experiences, low morale, struggle to maintain personal values and standards in the classroom." (118) The researchers selected teachers from middle and secondary schools in Utah for participation in a twelve step, holistic perspective program contained the following constituents: "introduction, concept of stress, task based and role-conflict stress, assertiveness life style, relaxation and breathing, mediation, nutrition, exercise, holistic living, coping with disappointment, chemical stressors, support systems, understanding situations, letting go of resentments, and where to go from here." (120-121) The researchers reported teacher stress had significantly lowered in the teachers who had completed the twelve step stress management program. The authors claimed a need for a complex, multi-faceted stress management program for teachers with additional individualized treatment. (127)
"Response to failure is a variable of great importance within the context of both intrinsic motivation and achievement theories," stated Margaret Clifford, Ahyoung Kim, and Barbara McDonald in their article, "Responses to Failure as Influenced by Task Attrition, Outcome Attrition, and Failure Tolerance." (19) According to the authors, optimum motivation is provided by moderately difficult tasks; these tasks also seem to enhance performance. This implies relatively frequent failures. By studying the results of failure and by "identifying the conditions under which constructive responses to failure are likely to occur may help ensure persistence, continued achievement, and intrinsic motivation." (19) The theory of constructive failure attempts to connect one's failure responses to the task factors responsible for experiences of failure. Clifford, et. al., listed two dynamics involved in failure responses: attributions are fairly common and natural responses to failure outcomes, and failure attributed to lack of ability. Future success is implied in an effort attribution if one tried harder; whereas, future success is unlikely with an ability attribution no matter the amount of effort that was put forth. Others evaluate one's effort attribution more negatively than one's ability attribution which " elicits pity and assistance." (20) When one has employed an inappropriate strategy, the failure attributed prompts more favorable/positive responses from others than failures due to ability or effort. With an inappropriate strategy, the failure attributed prompts more favorable/positive responses from others than failures due to ability or effort. With an inappropriate strategy in future endeavors of the same sort. The individual does not experience the guilt or self-debasing associated with the ability or effort. With an inappropriate strategy failure, one merely needs to search for a more suitable strategy in future endeavors of the same sort. The individual does not experience the guilt or self-debasing associated with ability or effort attributions. One experiencing failure due to inappropriate strategy usage also tends to focus on future successes rather than dwell on past failures, encountering less negative evaluations from others. The endogenous attribution theory states tasks which are self-directed result in higher performance and greater endurance than the tasks which are mandated and supervised. "Task engagement attributed to others or internal factors, such as personal interest or the desire to demonstrate one's competence produces more favorable results than task engagement attributed to others or external factors such as threats, incentives, bribes." (21) It was found self- attributed tasks resulted in more positive responses to failure than the outcome attributions or task attributions. Imposed attributions (outcome and task) offer less interest to the performer of the task resulting in lesser personal involvement and commitment. The findings of the study reported by the authors, stated "failure tolerance appears to be valid and valuable individual difference variable that predicts observer's responses to failure situations." (34) Failure tolerance can be altered through "training, task experience, and instruction." (35) Strategies related to tasks should be identified and stressed during training, since strategies are the the "most constructive explanation for failure." (35)
Charles H. Sederberg and Shirley Clark defined vitality as "an essential, intangible, positive quality of individuals (and institutions) that is synonymous with purposeful production, dedicated to beliefs that produce action and sustained commitment." (6) Motivation, a dynamic force, sustains vitality as reported in the article, "Motivation and Organizational Incentives for High Vitality Teachers: A Qualitative Perspective." The article reported the findings of a study conducted on motivation in regards to high vitality teachers. The outcome of the study found "either organizational expectations or valued outcomes can stimulate motivation" and "the effects of outcomes on motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic." (6) The author listed seven integrated "needs" for motivation: group inclusion, trust, ontological security, avoidance of anxiety, symbolic/material gratification, maintenance of self-concept, and a sense of facility. Without these seven needs, Sederberg and Clark stated, the teacher is left with feelings of insignificance and deprivation. The teachers who underwent this study lay no claims to higher education, nor nay teacher preparation for their motivation, and all were good students themselves. They all had diligent work habits, genuine interest in young people and a true commitment to quality teachers in both elementary and secondary school settings. The teachers were ideal role models for future teachers and the authors felt these teachers could be "a potentially effective strategy for teacher recruiting." (11) The teachers defined their motivation "in terms of dedication and missionary zeal," and claimed their successful reaching of students as "both a driving motivation for sustaining high level performance and as the ultimate reward for their effort." (12) Sederberg and Clark concluded their article with three incentives to assist and prolong high vitality teachers:
1. ... a system of competent supervision that reinforces personal motivation for excellence in teaching, offering suggestions for improvement and, most importantly gives recognition for work well done
2. collegial relationships
3. major project participation and sabbatical leaves (12)
A new paradigm concerning motivation in the article, "A New Understanding of Self: The Role of Affect, State of Mind, Self-Understanding and Intrinsic Motivation," written by Roger C. Mills. Mills began his article stating early motivational theories concurred with Freud, founder of psycho-analytic psychology. Freud believed motivation in an individual was due to the "basic psychic forces that determined personality - the id, ego, and superego." (67) The early motivational theories believed the basic biological needs and psycho social drives (sex, hunger, physical comfort, achievement, dominance, prestige, recognition, etc.) were the constructs to an individual's motivation. Mills reported researchers from the University of Oregon discovered a "higher self or metacognitive self-as-agent," with intrinsic motivation being the by-product of a "healthy, self-actualized individual." (67) The "higher" self is responsible for the formulation and direction of thinking resulting in one's behavior and affect.
This self is more fundamental then what is thought of as personality, or the sum total of intellectual knowledge and self-concept. It appears that this higher self is defined most directly in terms of being the source of an innate inner wisdom and uncontaminated state of well- being. This wisdom is recognized in day-to-day life as what is normally called 'common sense' or insight. It is the source of creativity and invention and the source of higher order feelings such as the pure joy of discovery and of unconditional well-being. (68-69)
The "higher" self is a healthy drive without the presence of stress. This state of being is unconditional and unforced.
When functioning from higher self, motivation is based less on insecurity and is less self-centered. In this state, motivation comes from a desire to contribute; one also wants to learn for the sheer joy of learning, to be productive and creative, and to perform at peak capacity for the intrinsic satisfaction of doing something as well as it can possibly be done." (69)
According to Mills, everyone can function from the "higher" self. The "higher" self being composed of one's "unconditional well-being, intrinsic motivation, innate wisdom, creativity, and a capacity for insight." (69) The researchers of this study found anyone can function at the "higher" self at anytime; it is a natural state in all human beings. The "higher" self is separate from one's previous experiences or learned beliefs. Mills maintained there exists three principles interacting for "higher" self performance. The first principle states everyone has the ability to attain a "higher" self. The psychological make up of a person permits one to move toward intrinsic motivation with "unconditional self-esteem, a capacity for common sense, mature judgement, and an enjoyment of doing things well." (69) It is the lower state of self concept, operating independently of the "higher" self, which encompasses the motivational drive from learned cognitions (ie. parental, cultural, and societal standards.) This lower state attaches certain beliefs to one's self-concept. In the lower tate, one perceives his/her self worth through income, intelligence, and/or abilities. The basis for the second principle will the "higher" self states, "Cognitive psychology has moved away from external reinforcements." (70) The analyzing of one's learned beliefs can release one from the damaging and inhibiting ways previously learned. One no longer requires the need to constantly prove oneself. Principle three deals with the consciousness and its relationship to thought. One has the capacity to vacillate between the conscious, lower self, to the subconscious, "higher" self by utilizing "clues" to distinguish the higher state of mind. Consciousness carries varying degrees of insecure affect. One is trying to prove oneself and attempting to meet one's needs of ego gratification. One's learned beliefs, "hostility, fear, resentment, depression, self-pity, defensiveness, or even paranoia," signal one' s lower state of consciousness. (71) Individuals allow their self image to be controlled by external factors. "When individuals understand these differences between the qualities of their feelings in the intrinsic, as opposed to their conditioned, 'self-conscious' states of motivation, they are able to notice those times when they are in lower, first- order states of functioning." (71) Once these "clues" are recognized by the individual, the person can regulate their state of conscious and move from the lower state to the "higher" state.
Individnals vacillate between the "higher" self and the lower self daily. As with deprivation, one needs to experience the lower self in order to become aware of functioning at the "higher" self and to enjoy the positive feelings of the "higher" state. With the "higher" ' self being automatic and natural, self-esteem and motivation are unconditioned, relieving the more stressful conditioned state of lower sell The lower self, "contingent on external reinforcements with forced, and/or categorical conditions." (74) The lower, conditioned state, brings cyclic, health damaging effects to an individual; whereas, when operating in the "higher" state, an individual enjoys what s/he is doing. The task becomes almost effortless. In the conditioned state, the task seems difficult and tedious; hence, reinforcements are attached to the task.
The study claimed teachers operating at the lower level became "burned out" and they, themselves, used external forces to attempt motivation in their students. These students were found to be high risk with low self-esteem. (76) It became imperative, from the study, for teachers to function at the "higher" self in regards to their students and to:
* involve people who are aware of the existence of, and function themselves from, this intrinsic state of motivation,
* provide feelings of respect, noncontingent regard, genuine care, and acceptance;
* are not reactive to, do not take personally, judge, analyze, or focus on the part of the youth's behavior that stems from their learned self-concept;
* see and directly point toward the potential in students for metacognitive awareness, helping them bypass their learned, insecure frame of reference; and
* provide models of people who enjoy their work, are an example of unconditional well-being and self-assurance while being enthusiastic, upbeat, and productive, themselves, in their work with students. (76-77)
When teachers were taught how to operate at the "higher" self, their students' self-esteem and motivation also improved. When students were taught how to operate at the "higher self:
teenage
discipline
serious
family
parent
failing
Parents of the students were also taught the new paradigm, "higher" self. The majority of these parents went back to work or school and within two years, 48% were employed. Child abuse decreased by 65%. (78) The article concluded, "to have a happy and fulfilling life did not depend on their past, their circumstances, or their station in life." (78)
We are a product of what we have been taught. Teachers were taught extrinsic modes to motivation. Thusly, the teachers taught extrinsic modes of motivation to their students, a form of motivation burdened with stress, anxiety, and low self-esteem. The students emerged from the pedagogical processes with self-destructive means in their adulthood. As one studies the interactive dynamics involved in motivation, one can apply the positive interactive dynamics concerning motivation, with teachers, producing highly motivated students. Stress, environmental and self-perceived, needs to be kept to a minimum for teachers. Internal locus of control construct, where one feels in control of situations, brings less stress to teachers. Efficacy outcome and efficacy expectations brought about high levels of success to the students taught by the teachers experiencing the "higher" self meta-cognition. When the working conditions of teachers remain conducive to the interactive, dynamics of motivation, highly motivated teachers teach students to become highly motivated themselves, repeating a positive, productive cycle.
References
Bertock, Michael, Elwin Nielsen, Jeffrey Curley, and Walter Borg. "Reducing Teacher Stress." The Journal of Experimental Education. Volume 57, Number 2, Winter 1989. Pages 118-127.
Clifford, Margaret, Ahyoung Kim, and Barbara McDonald. "Responses to Failure as Influenced by Task Attribution, Outcome Attribution, and Failure Tolerance." The Journal of Experimental Education. Volume 57, Number 1, Fall 1988. Pages 19-35.
Coladarci, Theodore. "Teachers' Sense of Efficacy and Commitment to Teaching." The Journal of Experimental Education. Volume 60, Number 4, Summer 1992. Pages 323-334.
Mills, Roger C. "A New Understanding of Self: The Role of Affect, State of Mind, Self-Understanding and Intrinsic Motivation." The Journal of Experimental Education. Volume 60, Number 1, Fall 1991. Pages 67- 78.
Parkay, Forrest W., Stephen Olejnik, Norman Proller. "A Study of the Relationships Among Teacher Efficacy, Locus of Control, and Stress." Journal of Research and Development in Education. Volume 21, Number 4, Summer 1988. Pages 13-21.
Sederberg, Charles H., Shirley Clark. "Motivation and Organizational Incentives for High Vitality Teachers: A Qualitative Perspective." Journal of Research and Development in Education. Volume 24, Number 1, Fall 1990. Pages 6-13.
Czubaj, Camilia Anne, Maintaining teacher motivation.. Vol. 116, Education, 03-01-1996, pp 372(7).
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